General approaches to teaching

Fitness for purpose

The approach advocated in a 1992 report on Classroom Practice and Classroom Organisation in Primary Schools , by Alexander, Rose and Woodhead, which steps aside from the polarised debates about approaches to teaching which have beset primary education. It argues that all approaches have strengths and weaknesses and that teachers should adopt whatever is likely to be most suitable for their particular educational purpose. There are no easy, 'right' answers.

Progressive teaching

This is a very general term which is usually associated with allowing considerable amounts of child activity and choice with the teacher in the role of facilitator. Associated with 'child-centred education' and 'discovery methods' it was thought to have been prevalent in primary school classrooms following the Plowden Report of 1967. However, HMI inspections and research studies found little evidence, though it was, and is, important in teachers' professional commitment to pupils and the quality of their experiences in school.

Traditional teaching

A very general term which is usually associated with rather didactic methods in which a teacher controls the curriculum and pupil behaviour very tightly and adopts the role of instructor. Associated with the preparatory and elementary traditions in primary education and sometimes believed to be associated with 'higher standards', though, even if others allowed this, they would add 'and a narrow curriculum'.

Child-centred education

Another general term, associated with progressive teaching, and used to denote provision which is designed around sets of assumptions about the needs of the children of a particular age. The approach was influenced by Piaget's thinking and has been very influential in shaping teacher's values and commitments to children.

Didactic teaching

A form of teaching with tight teacher control in which knowledge is transmitted to the pupil, who is expected to passively receive it and to 'read, mark, learn and inwardly digest' the knowledge. Closely associated with traditional teaching.

Supported learning

This approach has been influenced by Vygotsky's theories and emphasises the role of the teacher as a guide supporting and controlling a child's learning, guiding a child through their zone of proximal development (see ZPD, in 'Psychological issues and concepts'). It contrasts with the approach described above as 'progressive' which suggests a more minimal role for the teacher. According to this Vygotskian based approach the teacher is on hand to give help when needed and withdraws help when the child can manage a task alone, (see 'scaffolding', in 'Teaching strategies'). Applications of this approach use phrases such as 'guided participation' and 'assisted learning' to emphasise this particular learning/teaching relationship.

Forms of school organisation of classes

Single age classes

A class of pupils, often formed in a school with one form of entry at admission, in which all the pupils have birthdays in the same school year.

Mixed age classes

A class of pupils, common in schools which do not have one, simple form of entry at admission, in which the pupils have birthdays in more than one school year. Mixed age classes are very common in primary schools, particularly in small, rural schools.

Single sex classes

During the nineties there was widespread concern with boys' underachievement compared to girls as shown in school league tables for GCSE results. One strategy believed to combat this, and now practised in some secondary schools, is to have single sex classes which can focus on the interests and learning styles of the single sex group. This strategy is now also used in some primary schools although research is divided about its success.

Streaming

An organisational device in which a judgement of 'general ability' is used to allocate the children in a school or year-group to broad groups for all teaching purposes. This approach was popular in the 1950s and early 1960s in preparation of some children for 11+ exams, though less able children often suffered from reduced self-esteem.

Mixed ability classes

Classes formed by a mixture of pupils attending a school, with no attempt at differentiation on the basis of attainment or ability. The most common form of class organisation in primary schools and valued for the sense of community and understanding of other which it can engender.

Setting

A process whereby children are taught a particular subject in groups, based on their attainment or on a judgement of ability. Once an important feature of traditional teaching and its suitability for some purposes is now being reconsidered.

Withdrawal for specialist help
In many schools children with special educational needs are withdrawn from some classes so that they can work with learning support staff in small groups or on a one-to-one basis.

Teaching roles

Generalist class teacher

A teacher who teaches all subjects of the National Curriculum to his or her class of children. Allows great flexibility and is often associated with the statement that 'I teach children not subjects'. Reflects the assertion of an important quality in the commitment of primary school teachers to the social and emotional development of children. Particularly common in work with young children, where the balance of advantage is seen to lie with generalism and knowing the personalities of the children very well.

Specialist subject teacher

A teacher who specialises in the teaching of a limited number of National Curriculum subjects and teaches them to several classes across the school. Part of a small team of specialist subject teachers so that the whole curriculum is covered by careful and rigid time-tabling. Strong in the preparatory tradition and becoming more common particularly in work with older children, where the balance of advantage is seen to lie with specialism and knowing the subject to be studied very well.

Semi-specialist teacher

A hybrid of generalist and specialist in which the roles are enacted selectively for particular purposes. For instance, four teachers in a junior school may teach English, maths and some topics which integrate history, geography, technology and art as a generalist to their own class. However, music, science, physical education and information & communication technology may be taught by these same four teachers, working in each others classrooms so that each can share a particular expertise which he or she has.

Forms of class organisation of pupils

Whole class work

A form of organisation in which a whole class is taught together or works on similar tasks or activities together.

Group work

A form of class organisation in which individual pupils work in a group on tasks or activities which are similar.

Cooperative group work

A form of class organisation in which individual pupils work in a group and contribute to a shared task or activity which has been set for the group as a whole.

Individualised work

A form of class organisation in which each individual pupil is set particular tasks or activities.

Pair work

The class is organised so that pairs of children may work on a task together. This form of organisation lends itself well to computer based tasks.

Circle time

Inspired by the work of Jenny Moseley and others this has become an increasingly popular form of whole class co-operation where the class are seated in a circle and take turns to share ideas, feelings and personal stories. It is aimed at promoting children's communication skills as it encourages turn-taking, speaking and listening. It is also perceived to boost children's self confidence.

Elements of lessons

Orientation

An early point of a lesson in which children are prepared for the topic they are to be taught.

Instruction

An important, structuring or restructuring element of a lesson in which the teacher clarifies objectives, offers the pupils knowledge, skill and understanding of the subject and sets aims for tasks and/or activities. A phase which may be revisited if particular teacher support during a lesson is required.

Tasks

A clearly defined structure for learning which has been set up by a teacher and which has a specified objective which is known to the pupil.

Activities

A relatively open ended structure for learning, often involving use of a resource or medium which has been provided by the teacher for general experiential purposes and within which children can often introduce their own objectives. More common with younger children.

Review (Plenary)

An opportunity to consider the processes and outcomes which have resulted from engagement in tasks and activities. In particular, pupils can articulate and hear about developments in knowledge, understanding and skill, thus leading to consolidation. The teacher can gather evidence to help them assess pupil progress which can be used in future lessons.

Homework

The use of homework is increasing as a strategy for raising standards and for preparing pupils for their SATS at the end of key stage 2. Homework can also be used as way of involving parents in their children's school learning, although not all parents are in a position to assist with the demands of homework.

Teaching strategies

Instructing

Imparting knowledge, skill or understanding to enhance the development of a learner.

Observing

Watching a learner carefully to inform a judgement of their responses to a learning challenge.

Explaining

Providing clarification in response to a learner's need.

Discussing

Engaging with a learner in focused conversation on a learning topic with a view to enhancing their knowledge, skill, understanding or motivation.

Questioning

Asking a learner questions to diagnose his or her existing level of knowledge, skill or understanding, or to gauge his or her attitude and motivation towards a learning challenge.

Conferencing

Holding a particular conversation with an individual pupil for the purpose of reviewing his or her learning progress and to plan future targets.

Scaffolding

Providing appropriate support, often though instruction or explanation, which enables a child to construct understanding for themselves. Often thought of in association with Vygotsky's concept of the 'zone of proximal development'.

Matching

Ensuring that learning tasks are set at suitable levels of challenge in respect of pupils existing knowledge, skills and understanding.

Reflecting

Taking stock of teaching and learning, evaluating evidence and analysing strengths and weaknesses in classroom provision and teaching practices.

Psychological approaches to learning

Behaviourism

A psychological approach based on study of how animals respond to environmental stimuli and can become 'conditioned'. Early investigators were Watson, Pavlov and Skinner. Sophisticated chains of such learning are possible, particularly in people, and behaviourism has been a dominant form of psychology for since the early 1900s.

Behaviour Managment

Loosely based on the approach described above, the underlying premise is that a child's behaviour can be changed through appropriate systems of reward and punishment 'conditioning' the child into positive behaviour patterns.

Constructivism

A psychological approach based on the study of children's attempts to construct understanding through interaction with their environment of people, things and experiences. The most influential constructivist was Piaget who, among other things, studied the role of language on children's thinking and who generated a model of four 'stages' in children's intellectual development.

Social constructivism

A psychological approach which locates many constructivist ideas within a social context to emphasise the influence of culture and interaction on learning. The most influential social constructivist was Vygotsky who, in particular, conceived of the 'zone of proximal development' (ZPD) and emphasised the role of a more knowledgeable other (teacher, parent or child) in scaffolding a learner's understanding.

Socio-cultural psychology

This approach builds on social constructivism in emphasising the importance of the social context in a person's learning and development. However it goes one step further as it recognises that social contexts are also cultural contexts that is to say they can be characterised by shared meanings and values, though these may often be taken for granted rather than explicit, (see also Culture in 'Social Processes and consequences')

Child development

A general psychological approach which traces the interaction of physical, intellectual, social and emotional development of children. Once particularly central to initial teacher education for what may seem to be obvious reasons, it has been largely excluded from courses in recent years as a result of government regulation and the wish to emphasise the teaching of subjects.

Psychological issues and concepts

Intelligence

The capability to know, do and understand. Once thought of as being a general capability largely deriving from genetic inheritance, modern thinking suggests the existence of multiple forms of intelligence and of significant social influences on its development.

Language

The verbal expression of thought and feeling for communication. A medium which plays a central role in the development of cognition and social interaction from birth.

Discourse

A body of shared meanings and language use constructed through conversations, texts and other forms of communication. The concept is associated with the work of Foucault who emphasised the ways that language-use, within a particular social group, brings about shared assumptions and is in turn created by shared assumptions

Experience

Engagement with people, materials, events and the environment which is formative in shaping the perception and responses of learners.

Motivation

The disposition of learners to learn, often variable in respect of particular topics.

Learned Helplessness

Learned helplessness is a maladaptive motivational style and prevents pupils from making the most of whatever talents they possess. It arises when pupils attribute a lack of success to a lack of ability and see the lack of ability as being beyond personal control. When work becomes difficult the learned helpless pupil abandons rather than increase their efforts (See Galloway et al. in Further Readings)

Schema

A framework of existing thinking and interconnected concepts held by a learner, into which successive learning may be assimilated.

Meta-cognition

The process by which an individual reflects on the process of his or her thinking, which can have a powerful effect in improving the quality of that thinking.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD)

The area which is just beyond a learner's existing level of knowledge, skill or understanding and which they could successfully learn about if appropriately supported by a knowledgeable other.

Self-esteem

The value or opinion which an individual ascribes to himself or herself, thus powerfully influencing self-confidence in tackling new learning challenges.

Creativity

The element of originality, innovation or divergence which a learner is able to apply to a learning challenge.

Cognition

The psycho-biological process of thinking and processing information which is involved in all learning by individuals.

Affect

Feelings held by individuals, for instance, in the experience of learning and social interaction.

Play

An activity, particularly common among young children, in which ideas, roles, behaviour and the imagination can be explored with minimal risk.

Discipline

A constraint on behaviour, imposed by self or others, which is essential in a school environment because it enables teachers and pupils to concentrate on learning.