Aims

General statements about the overall purposes of educational provision which are set at national, local and school levels. Clarity in aims is particularly useful for the planning and evaluation of practice.

Philosophical concepts

A value judgement made about an educational priority, often in respect of `what children need'.

Interests

A term often used in respect of children to denote topics or activities which they are thought to find attractive and around which a curriculum might be constructed. Also used to highlight the status, values or financial concerns of those involved in political struggles, for instance between teachers and conservative pressure groups in the late 1980s.

Rights

Entitlements to receive opportunities from others. For instance, of children in respect of the National Curriculum from schools, parents in respect of high quality schools from Governors and Local Education Authorities and teachers in respect of sound national and local education policies, structures and resources.

Responsibilities

Educational traditions

The elementary tradition

A form of educational practice and provision associated with the mass education of the 19th century with a narrow concentration on the 3R's (reading, 'riting and 'rithmetic) and with authoritarian discipline.

A form of educational practice and provision which emphasises the ways in which children develop physically, socially, emotionally and intellectually as a basis for planning and organising learning.

The preparatory tradition

A form of practice and provision which sees primary education as a `preparation' for secondary education and which has been particularly influential in the independent school sector where children are examined prior to acceptance in `public schools' (secondary independent schools).

Influential educationalists

Froebel (1782 - 1852)

Founder of Kindergarten system in Germany who emphasised respect for the autonomy of young children and the importance of structured play. Influential in nursery and infant school education.

Montessori, Maria (1870 - 1952)

Italian educator who believed that `play is the child's work' and that a sequence of child development could be structured through a series of planned play activities using specific equipment. Particularly influential in nursery education within the independent sector.

Piaget, Jean (1896 - 1980)

Swiss psychologist who, through his studies of child development, identified four `stages': sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete operations and formal operations through which children pass in a developmental process as they adapt to and assimilate their environment. His work was interpreted as legitimating the `child-centred' ideas which were very influential in primary education in the late 1960s and 1970s. The most influential `constructivist' psychologist.

Skinner, B. F. (1904 - 1990 )

American psychologist who, through his studies of animal behaviour, identified the ways in which learning can be affected by chains of conditioning between `stimuli' and `response'. Such `behaviourist' work provides a rationale for `rote' learning, practice and some forms of skill development.

Gagne, (1916 )

A behaviourist psychologist whose work established the concept of staged `hierarchies of learning', an idea that underpins the many mathematics and other published `schemes' used in primary schools.

Bruner, Jerome (1915)

American psychologist, much influenced by Vygotsky, who demonstrated the modern relevance of his work. A proponent of a `cultural psychology' in which social aspects of learning are taken very seriously.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1819 - 1934)

Russian psychologist who analysed the importance of social context and interaction in learning. His most influential concept is the `zone of proximal development'. The most influential `social constructivist' psychologist.

Stenhouse, Lawrence

Influential government reports

The Hadow Report (1931)

The Primary School , was an influential official expression of `progressive' ideas. The most quoted assertion is, `The curriculum is to be thought of in terms of activity and experience rather than knowledge to be acquired and facts to be stored.'

The Plowden Report (1967)

Children and their Primary Schools , promoted the applications of developmental psychology (particularly from Piaget) in primary school teaching and has been regarded as an important influence on `progressive' and `child-centred' ideas which were popular among teachers in the late 1960s and 1970s.

The Bullock Report (1975)

A Language for Life , argued that children's language is of paramount importance and should be developed across the whole curriculum through systematic school policies.

The Warnock Report (1978)

Special Education: Forward Trends , established that one in five children have special educational needs at some point in their school education and needed particular provision. The Education Act of 1981 enacted many of the reports recommendations including an emphasis on the integration of children with (SEN) and the issue of `statements' of pupil need.

The Cockcroft Report (1982)

Mathematics Counts , set out the arguments for the importance of mathematics in everyday life and advocated innovative teaching methods including problem-solving and the use of calculators and computers.

The Elton Report (1989)

Discipline in Schools , a balanced account which documented how `most schools are well ordered', also the cumulative impact of `minor disruption'. It suggested that teacher status and training could be enhanced; highlighted the importance of school effective management and parental guidance; and emphasised the role of pupils taking responsibility.

The House of Commons Select Committee Report (1986)

Achievement in Primary Schools , provided a thorough overview of the state of primary education in the mid-1980s. Among its recommendations was the suggestion that class teachers should also act as `curriculum coordinators' for particular subjects across the whole school.

Choice and Diversity' DfEE White Paper(1992)

Known in some government quarters as 'chaos and diversity' the paper recommended a 'back-to-basics' curriculum and emphasised five key values: quality, diversity, parental choice, school autonomy, and greater accountability. Its main objective was to increase the number of GMS. It became the basis for the 1993 Education Act (see below)

The House of Commons Select Committee Report (1994)

The Disparity in Funding between Primary and Secondary Schools , concluded that the gap in funding between the two sectors was too wide, with expenditure on secondary pupils being more than 40% higher than on primary pupils, despite the range of new demands made following the introduction of the National Curriculum. Concerns about rising class sizes were expressed.

Excellence in Schools (DfEE 1997)

Rapidly produced by the new Labour Government this stated a commitment to high standards and a change from 'complacency' to 'commitment to success' and competition 'in the global economy'. It set out a whole raft of detailed policies, most of which became law in the School Standards and Framework Act 1998 (see below). These included, for example, the use of baseline testing for children starting school, the setting up of early years forums, the piloting of 25 early excellence centres, the availability of more performance data (league tables) for the public, the introduction of a literacy hour, the possibility of a numeracy hour, and suggested that LEAs should draw up education development plans and tackle 'failing schools' advised by the new Standards Task Force who would lead a 'crusade' for higher standards.

Meeting the Child Care Challenge . ( DfEE 1998)

This was a government green paper outlining the need for a childcare strategy. The aims were to support families and their children by providing good quality affordable childcare, available to meet the needs of all neighbourhoods. The paper recommended the expansion of the Early Excellence Centres programme, the introduction of Family Credit , the training of childcare workers through the New Deal and the expansion of the Early Years Development Partnership.

Schools Building on Success (DfES 2001)

Major legislation

A useful book to read on education legislation during the past fifty years is: 'Education in a post-welfare society', by Sally Tomlinson, (2001), Buckingham, Open University Press. Some of the following accounts are based on this.

Education Act, 1870

Established `elementary schools' to fill the gaps in the previously voluntary provision of education for young children.

Education Act, 1944

Abolished elementary schools and established `primary schools'. It also enabled remaining voluntary schools to change their status to `aided' or `controlled' and receive state funding within one national system of primary education. In secondary education, it established grammar, secondary modern and technical schools.

Sex Discrimination Act, 1976

Prohibited sex discrimination in school admissions, teacher appointments and curricular and other provision.

Race Relations Act, 1976

Prohibited discrimination on grounds of ethnicity in school admissions, teacher appointments and curricular and other provision.

Education Act, 1981

Enacted most of the recommendations of the Warnock Report on provision for children with Special Educational Needs. It required that children with SEN be issued with a `statement' of those needs and encouraged the integration of children with SEN within mainstream provision. (Repealed by the Education (Schools) Act, 1992)

Education Act, 1986

Established governing bodies for each school with a specific composition and set of powers for each school size and status. Set a requirement for governing bodies to adopt a curriculum policy, and to provide an annual school report and Annual Meeting for parents.

Teachers' Pay and Conditions Act, 1987

Abolished teacher's rights to independent negotiating procedures over and pay and working conditions and authorised the Secretary of State to impose pay and conditions. He or she is advised by a School Teachers Review Body.

Education Reform Act, 1988

Set national educational aims for the first time and established the National Curriculum and a body to oversee it (The National Curriculum Council, NCC - abolished 1993); national assessment requirements and a body to oversee them (The School Examination and Assessment Council, SEAC - abolished 1993); requirements for the provision of information to parents; a policy of `open enrolment' and parental choice of school; delegation of finances from Local Education Authorities to schools; and the opportunity for large primary schools to `opt out' of Local Education Authority control and become `grant maintained' (GMS).

Children Act, 1989

Wide-ranging legislation which sought to establish a comprehensive framework for the coordination of all forms of law, service and support for children. The Act increased parental powers and those of the courts whilst also emphasising children's rights. Procedures for the work of professionals and agencies are complex.

Education (Schools) Act, 1992

Established new procedures for the inspection of schools by `registered inspectors' on a regular cycle (Planned to be every four years) and to be coordinated by the Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED). Though led by the Chief Inspector of Schools and supported by Her Majesty's Inspectors, the number of HMI was reduced and the system was introduced in which inspection is conducted by independent teams working to contract.

Education Act, 1993

Set up the Funding Agency for Schools (FAS) to administer funding for Grant Maintained Schools (GMS) after opt out from Local Education Authority control. Specified procedures for opting out and regulations for the governance of GMS. Additionally established a `Code of Practice' for national structuring of provision of Special Educational Needs. Introduced regulations for monitoring school attendance and procedures for the identification and monitoring of schools which are `failing to provide an acceptable standard of education.'

Education Act 1994

Set up the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) to fund teacher education courses, including school-based courses, and to promote research on training and standards of teaching. Schools were also now to be involved in initial teacher training supported by grants, in an attempt to detach the education and training of teachers from higher education.

Education Acts 1996

(July) Nursery and Grant Maintained Schools Act.

This was part of the drive towards the establishment of GMS. The intention behind this act was for GMS to be enabled to borrow money from private sources.

With regard to nursery education the LEA would be paid grants for schools and other providers of nursery education for 4year olds. They would offer parents a 'voucher' to be exchanged for pre-school education in state, voluntary or private early years services. This was scrapped by the Labour government when they came to power in 1997.

(November) Education (Schools) Act (consolidating Act)

This included a number of measures, later repealed in 1998 by the Labour Government. It included the following: funding powers were transferred to the Trusts and Governing bodies of GMS, CTCs ( City Technology Colleges) and CCTAs City Colleges of Technology and Arts. LEAs were to contribute towards spiritual, mental, moral and physical development ' and also promote 'high standards of education'. LEAs had a 'responsibility' to establish nursery schools and classes for children under 5 and for children who were ill, excluded or out-of -school. The duties of the FAS (see above) were further clarified although the FAS was soon to be scrapped - in 1998.

(November) Education (Schools Inspection) Act (consolidating Act)

This clarified the role of the chief inspectors for schools for England and Wales , the roles of registered and specialist inspectors, and procedures for inspections reports. It also set out the legislation for schools placed in 'special measures'.

Education Act; abolition of assisted places scheme and nursery vouchers. 1997.

(July)

School Standards and Framework Act 1998

This was mainly concerned with the new categories of maintained schools ('foundation', 'aided' or 'community') their establishment, financing, staffing, admissions and selection systems. (See 'School Status' section) GMS had been brought in under the Conservatives as along term strategy for reviving selection. New Labour remained ambivalent about the principle of selection preferring to reduce rather than preclude selection by ability. This act also introduced the setting up of Education Action Zones in areas of social disadvantage and the limiting of infant class sizes.

Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000

This legislation is about unlawful discrimination in regard to employment, education and training. It is concerned both with direct and indirect discrimination and applies to public bodies including the education service.