Notes for further reading

Overview

A central task of teaching is to make new knowledge, skills and conceptual frameworks available to pupils and this involves using language to engage with and order experience so that new patterns of thinking and new ways of understanding and representing reality are developed. We learn through language and we express our understanding in language. Each subject has its own special language which is bound up with its way of thinking, talking and writing. In addition there is a style of speaking which we have long recognised as associated with the ‘language of education’.

As accessible introductions to the importance of communication in the primary classroom and the relationship between language and understanding, the following have become classics amongst both practitioners and academics:

Edwards, D. and Mercer, N. (1987) Common Knowledge: The Development of Understanding in Classrooms, London: Methuen (Reading 12.3)

Wells, G. (1986) The Meaning Makers: Children Learning Language and Using Language to Learn, London: Hodder and Stoughton (Reading 12.1)

For a more recent discussion of effective interactions between teachers and pupils and a definition of interactive teaching, see:

Moyles, J., Hargreaves, L., Merry, R., Paterson, F. and Esarte-Sarries, V. (2003) Interactive Teaching in the Primary School: digging deeper into meaning, Buckingham: Open University Press.

The links between language, learning and children's' developing independence is fully explored in:

Williams, J. (2002) Promoting Independent Learning in the Primary Classroom, Buckingham: Open University Press.

For a celebration of research that draws on the experience of teachers and pupils to emphasise the centrality of talk for learning, see:

Norman, K. (Ed) (1992) Thinking Voices: The Work of the National Oracy Project, London: Hodder & Stoughton.

Language underpins all the subjects in the primary curriculum as children learn to use language, use language to learn and learn about language. For an accessible introduction to language across the curriculum, see:

Bearne, E. (ed) (1998) Use of Language Across the Primary Curriculum, London: Routledge.

Section 1: General characteristics of classroom communication

The critical role of language for learning is now long established. For a detailed coverage of language and cognitive development in middle and late childhood which encourages the reader to take a critical, interactive stance throughout, see:

Lee, V. & Das Gupta, P. (Eds) (1995) Children’s Cognitive and Language Development, Oxford: Blackwell.

For further general introductions to the importance and use of language in the primary classroom, see:

Goodwin, P. (2001) The Articulate Classroom, London: David Fulton.

Tann, S. (1991) Developing Language in the Primary Classroom, London: Cassell.

Wray, D. and Medwell, J. (1991) Literacy and Language in the Primary Years, London: Routledge.

When we examine classroom interaction closely, a number of characteristics can be identified. These can provide important clues to the views of learning being expressed as well as the nature and quality of the teaching learning processes being observed. If, for example, a teacher sees knowledge as content (as existing, prescribed subject-matter which pupils are required to accept), then the communication will be mainly transmission and assessment will also predominate. However, if the teacher takes a social constructivist view and sees knowledge as existing in the learner’s ability to interpret, then communication will be interactive, and there will be negotiation between the teacher’s knowledge and the pupils’ knowledge. Talk and writing will be collaborative and exploratory, and will support the struggle to understand as new knowledge is related to the learner’s ‘action knowledge’.

For insights into how we use language to think and get things done, the following draws on real-life language use within and beyond the classroom, see:

Mercer, N. (2000) Words and Minds: How We Use Language To Think Together, London: Routledge.

To make the point about the centrality of language and imagination in a different and very engaging way, see:

Paley, G. V. (1981) Wally's Stories, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Written in response to the implementation of the National Literacy Strategy, the following offer a range of practical strategies aimed at ensuring that literacy is taught in a vibrant and stimulating way through interactive discourse and effective questioning.

Bearne, E., Dombey, H., and Grainger, T. (Eds) (2003) Classroom Interactions in Literacy, Berkshire, Open Univiversity Press.

Cordon, R. (2000) Literacy And Learning Through Talk: Strategies For The Primary Classroom, Buckingham: Open University Press.

For a text which considers the recent literacy initiatives and their impact on both views of learning and the nature of classroom communications, see:

Webster, A., Beveridge, M. and Reed, M. (1996) Managing the Literacy Curriculum, London: Routledge.

For an in-depth look at aspects of reading and writing in use in the complex social context of the classroom, based on research over five years, see:

Webster, A., Beveridge, M. and Reed, M. (1996) Managing the Literacy Curriculum: How Schools can become Communities of Readers and Writers, London: Routledge.

For an alternative view of language, reading and culture, see:

Finn, P. J. (1999) Literacy with Attitude: Educating Working-Class Children in their Own Self-Interest, Albany: State University of New York Press.

In classroom situations, teachers and pupils will act as both speakers and listeners. Hence, if classroom communication and learning are to be assured, all the participants need to have knowledge, skills and attitudes which are appropriate to both speaking and listening in schools. This cannot be assumed.

On developing discussion, see the classic, and salutary:

Barnes, D., Britton, J. and Rosen, H. (1969) Language, the Learner and the School, Harmonsworth: Penguin.

Although this was based on an analysis of lessons in secondary schools it remains highly relevant for teachers in primary schools.

For work with younger children and a more specifically primary focus, see:

Ede, J. and Wilkinson, J. (1980) Talking, Listening and Learning, London: Longman.

MacLure, M., Phillips, T. and Wilkinson, A. (1988) Oracy Matters: The Development of Talking and Listening in Education, Buckingham: Open University Press.

For a practical exploration of questions, and questioning, by both teachers and pupils, see:

Wragg, T. and Brown, G. (2001) Questioning in the Primary School, London: Routledge.

For some interesting case studies of the use of debate and discussion, see:

Troyna, B. and Carrington, B. (1988) Children and Controversial Issues: Strategies for the Early and Middle Years of Schooling, London: Falmer.

Clear overviews of classroom talk are provided by:

Edwards, S. (1999) Speaking and Listening for All, London: David Fulton.

Graddol, D., Cheshire, J. and Swann, J. (1987) Describing Language, Buckingham: Open University Press.

Perera, K. (1987) Understanding Language, London: National Association of Advisers in English.

Teacher talk in the classroom can be divided into three categories: talk related to learning (e.g.: exploratory talk, exposition, questioning); administrative talk to ensure the management of tasks and activities; and disciplinary talk concerned with managing behaviour and maintaining control. In this way teachers have control of the material to be learned and the way in which talk is conducted.

For books which consider all three categories of talk but which make specific reference to disciplinary talk and the management of the classroom, see:

Cazden, C. B. (1988) Classroom Discourse: The Language of Teaching and Learning, Portsmouth: Heinemann.

Manke, M. P. (1997) Classroom Power Relation: Understanding Student-Teacher Interactions, London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Section 2: Language and inclusion

As linguistic diversity increases in countries around the world educators and policy makers are faced with complex and sometimes conflicting issues regarding what are considered to be appropriate ways to educate multilingual children. As an important starting point it is important that teachers are aware of the linguistic diversity in their schools. For an introduction to these issues as they relate to the UK, see:

Alladina, S. and Edwards, V. (eds) (1991) Multilingualism in the British Isles, Two Volumes, London: Longman.

Linguistic Minorities Project (1985) The Other Languages of England, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

For constructive work which reviews the research, theory and practice and recognises the opportunities and challenges presented by linguistic diversity, see:

Conteh, J. (2003) Succeeding in Diversity: Culture, language and learning in primary classrooms, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

Cummins, J. (2000) Language, Power and Pedagogy, Bilingual Children in the Crossfire, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Meek, M. (ed) (1996) Developing Pedagogies in the Multilingual Classroom. The Writings of Josie Levine, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Clarke, P. (2000) Supporting Identity, Diversity and Language in the Early Years, Buckingham: Open University Press.

Woods, P., Boyle, M. and Hubbard, N. (1999) Multicultural Children in the Early Years, Creative Teaching Meaningful Learning, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Pinsent, P. (1992) Language, Culture and Young Children, London: David Fulton.

An interesting analysis of the characteristics of ‘Standard English’ is provided by:

Wilkinson, J. (1995) Introducing Standard English, London: Penguin.

There is plenty of evidence that, in the context of curriculum pressures, large class sizes and the demands of assessment, parity of attention is difficult to achieve. One feature which often causes problems is that there are variations in both the quantity and quality of teacher attention which is given to different categories of pupils. There are a number of obvious categories around which such variations have often been found: ability, gender, ethnicity and social class etc. The impact of including pupils with special needs also has to be considered.

For books which address the needs and recognise the achievements of bilingual learners across the curriculum, see:

Gravelle, M. (ed) (2000) Planning for Bilingual Learners. An Inclusive Curriculum, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

Wrigley, T. (2000) The Power to Learn: Stories of success in the education of Asian and other bilingual pupils, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

Verma, M. K., Corrigan, K. P. and Firth, S. (1995) Working with Bilingual Pupils, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Levine, J. (ed) (1990) Bilingual Learners and the Mainstream Curriculum, London: Falmer.

Miller, J. (1983) Many Voices: Bilingualism, Culture and Education, London: Routledge.

See also the chapter “I Treat Them All The Same” by A. P. Briggs and V. Edwards in:

Graddol, D., Maybin, J. & Stierer, B. (1994) (Eds) Researching Language and Literacy in the Social Context, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

For a brilliantly principled but very practical guide to young bilinguals learning to read, see:

Gregory, E. (1996) Making Sense of a New World: Learning to Read in a Second Language, London: Paul Chapman.

For a discussion of books which are embedded in the culture and language of their origin and which raise issues of national identity, see:

Meek, M. (ed) (2001) Children's Literature and National Identity, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

Richardson, R.(1999) Enriching Literacy - Text, Talk and Tales in Today's Classroom: A practical handbook for multicultural schools, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

This book offers ways for teachers to consider why some bilingual pupils are not making progress or are academically underachieving. It also looks at ways of asking questions about the pupil and collecting evidence of both learning and language development. The second edition has been revised and updated in light of the new government legislation and guidance, most significantly, the revised Code of Practice for Special Educational Needs.

Hall, D., Griffiths, D., Haslam, L. and Wilkin, Y. (2001) (2nd ed) Assessing the Needs of Bilingual Pupils, London: David Fulton.

For an introduction to the issues of gender inequalities in classroom talk, see:

Cruddas, L. and Haddock, L. (2003) Girls' Voices: Supporting girls' learning and emotional development, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

Ashley, M. and Lee, J. (2003) Women Teaching Boys: Caring and working in the primary school, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

See also chapters in:

Stierer, B. and Maybin, J.(1994) (Eds) Language, Literacy and Learning in Educational Practice, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

For an exploration of issues relating to the education of girls from the perspectives of teachers, researchers and girls in a variety of perspectives, see:

Lloyd, G. (2004) (Ed) Problem Girls: Understanding and Working with the Troubled and Troublesome, London: Routledge.

Osler, A. (2003) Girls and Exclusion: Rethinking the Agenda, London: Routledge.

For a practical approach to helping children with communication difficulties to understand and express themselves more fully, see:

Sturat, L., Wright, F., Grigor, S. and Howey, A. (2002) Spoken Language Difficulties. Practical Strategies and Activities for Teachers and Other Professionals, London: David Fulton.

Bender, W. N. (2002) Differentiating Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities:  Best teaching practices for general and special education, London: Sage.

Griffiths, F. (2002) Communication Counts. Speech and Language Difficulties in the Early Years, London: David Fulton.

Dockrell, J. and Messer, D. (1999) Children’s Language and Communication Difficulties, London: Continuum.

Traditionally quiet classroom have been regarded by many as being synonymous with a well-controlled classroom in which children are working hard and focusing on the learning tasks in hand. However, we believe that quiet compliant behaviour does not necessarily equate with a commitment to learning.

For a consideration of strategies to recognise and meet the social, emotional and educational needs of the quieter children in the classroom, see:

Collins, J. (1996) The Quiet Child, London: Cassell. (Reading 12.6)

For a further discussion of silence in the classroom, see:

Jaworski, A. (1993) Power of Silence, London: Sage.

For new perspectives on issues of inequality and inclusion, see:

Thomas, P. (2002) Schooling the Rustbelt Kids: Making the difference in changing times, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

Gaine, C. (1995) Still No Problem Here, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

Section 3: The balance of teacher-pupil initiative

Classrooms are busy places in which typically individual teachers work with relatively large groups of children. In their desire to maximise learning opportunities and, at the same time, maintain order and organise the classroom, it is not surprising that research shows that teachers do the majority of speaking in the classroom.

A classic research study carried out in America indicated that, in the teaching sessions observed, two thirds of the time was spent in talk and two thirds of that talking was done by the teacher.

Flanders, N. A. (1970) Analyzing Teaching Behavior, Reading, MA./London : Addison-Wesley.

Since then investigations in British primary schools have shown similar figures which suggest that classrooms remain predominantly teacher-dominated.

Galton, M., Simon, B. and Croll, P. (1980) Inside the Primary Classroom, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Bennett, N., Desforges, C., Cockburn, A. and Wilkinson, B. (1984) The Quality of Pupil Learning Experiences, London: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Galton, M., Hargreaves, L., Comber, C., Wall, D. and Pell, A. (1999) Inside the Primary Classroom, 20 Years On, London: Routledge.

For a framework which describes and analyses the extent to which teachers and children take the initiative in classroom communication, see:

Webster, A., Beverage, M. and Reed, M. (1996) Managing the Literacy Curriculum, How Schools can become Communities of Readers and Writers, London: Routledge. (Reading 12.7)

For an excellent introduction to the methods of recording and analysing classroom talk, see:

Edwards, A. D. and Westgate, D. P. G. (1994) (2nd ed) Investigating Classroom Talk, London: Falmer.

Bennett, K. and Kastor, T. (1988) Analysing Children's Language, Oxford: Blackwell.

For a resource book on the methodologies of childhood research, see:

Christensen, P. and James, A. (1999) Research with Children, London: Routledge.

For powerful books on educational reform from the pupils' perspectives, see:

Burke, C. and Grosvenor, I. (2003) The School I'd Like: Children and young people's reflections on an education for the 21st century, London: Routledge.

Lewis, A. and Lindsey, G. (Eds) (1999) Researching Children's Perspectives, Buckingham: Open University Press.

For an exploration of the ways in which professional understandings about childhood help to reconstruct and sustain childhood for young people, see:

Freebody, P., Austin, H. and Dwyer, B. (2002) Schooling the Child, London: Routledge.

For a discussion of the implications for social policy that emerge when the voices of children are listened to, see:

Haslet, C. and Prout, A. (2003) Hearing the Voices of Children: Social Policy for a New Century, London: Rout ledge.

For a practical guide which outlines essential skills and basic techniques for interviewing children from pre-school to fifteen, see:

Wilson, C. and Powell, M. (2001) A Guide to Interviewing Children, London: Routledge.

For an introduction to strategies which aim to increase pupil participation and give the learner a voice, see:

Brown, B. (2001) Combating Discrimination: persona dolls in action, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

Brock, A. (Ed) (1999) Into the Enchanted Forrest: language, drama and science in primary schools, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

Ewart, F.G. (1998) Let the Shadows Speak: developing children's language through shadow puppetry, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

 

 

In addition…

The National Association for the Teaching of English (NATE) produces five editions of their Primary English Magazine each year. These magazines, which are included in the NATE subscription charge, contain lively and interesting articles which are highly relevant to classroom teachers.

For an understanding of the linguistic and literacy knowledge required by The National Curriculum at Key Stages 1 and 2, see:

Eyres, I. (2000) Primary English, London: David Fulton.

Carter, R. (ed) (1990) Knowledge About Language and the National Curriculum, London: Hodder and Stoughton.

The National Oracy Project was one of three excellent development projects on language in the UK, with publications which are practical, imaginative and firmly rooted in an understanding of children's learning. Some of their valuable publications are in the form of pamphlets, booklets or newsletters but are worth a search. For example, see:

Norman, K. (1990) Teaching, Talking and Learning in Key Stage One, York: National Curriculum Council.

Baddeley, G. et al (1991) Teaching, Talking and Learning in Key Stage Two, York: National Curriculum Council.

National Curriculum Council and National Oracy Project (1991) Assessing Talk in Key Stages One and Two, Occasional Papers in Oracy, No 5, York: National Curriculum Council/National Oracy Project.

For a discussion as to why participatory behaviour is beneficial for children, teachers and the ethos of the school, see:

Flutter, J. and Rudduck, J. (2004) Consulting Pupils: What's in it for Schools, London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Klien, R. (2003) We Want Our Say, Children as Active Participants in Their Own Education, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

Wrigley, T. (2003) Schools of Hope: a new agenda for school improvement, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

For a discussion of the key issues and concepts that underpin school culture, see:

Prosser, J. (Ed) (1999) School Culture, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

Alexander, R. (2000) Culture and Pedagogy: International Comparisons in Primary Education, Oxford: Blackwell.

For insights into school culture from children's perspectives, see:

Devine, D. (2003) Children, Power and Schooling: How Childhood is Structured in the Primary School, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

The last of these compares primary and elementary schooling in England, France, India, Russia and the United States. It explores ways in which children's educational experiences are shaped by the culture and history of the school and wider communities.

For a practical handbook for training on race and other equity issues, see:

Richardson, R. and Miles, B. (2003) Equality Stories: Recognition, respect and raising achievement, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.