Notes for further reading

Overview

Behaviour management is of perennial concern to all teachers because of the numbers of children in a typical classroom which means that, in a sense, the teacher is always dealing with a crowd. Control of that crowd must, therefore, be a priority. However, the focus of attention should arguably be directed towards the maintenance of a positive climate for learning and to the prevention of managerial problems, so that crises are minimised or avoided. This is by no means easy, since classrooms are such complex places, where events can unfold very quickly. Moreover, even where teachers have control of the classroom, pupils may remain unclear about the aims of learning tasks set for them. The vital message is that classroom management is an absolutely necessary means to an end - but it is not the end itself.

For a book which provides many insights on classroom management, and which has become a classic, see:

Kounin, J.S. (1970) Discipline and Group Management in Classrooms, New York: Holt Rhinehart & Winston. (Reading 11.6)

For more recent overviews of the factors which impinge on issues of classroom management, see:

Weistein, R. (2004) Strategies That Work, London: Paul Chapman Publishers.

Hayden, T. (2003) Class, Management and Learning, London: Routledge Falmer.

Teachers work to cope with the demands of the classroom by maintaining order and by teaching effectively, while pupils cope by trying to achieve what they see as an appropriate balance between maintaining their peer status and satisfying school goals through learning. For a sociological analysis of how teachers and pupils establish a working consensus in the classroom and fascinating insights into the coping strategies which teachers and pupils might adopt, see:

Pollard, A. and Filer, A. (1999) The Social World of Pupil Career, Strategic Biographies through Primary School, London: Cassell.

Pollard, A. (1985) The Social World of the Primary School, London: Cassell. (Reading 6.4)

For the original use of the concept of working consensus, see:

Hargreaves, D. H. (1972) Interpersonal Relationships and Education, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (see also Reading, 6.4)

It is crucial to hold on to management issues in the context of broader educational objectives. On this, see:

Putnam, J. and Burke, J. B. (1992) Organising and Managing Classroom Learning Communities, New York: McGraw Hill.

Section 1: Management skills

Whether the teacher is adopting whole class, individual or group teaching strategies, part of their job is to maximise the time that all the individuals in the class are on task and paying attention. Involving all the children in the learning activities of a classroom involves developing the sensitivity to be able to ‘read’ how individual children are responding and to be able to anticipate the most effective way of maintaining interest or re engaging attention. This will differ from individual to individual and in different contexts.

For thought provoking reminders of the ways in which caring relationships, high expectations and positive attitudes can have a positive effect on behaviour and achievement, see:

Porter, L. (2003) Young Children's  Behaviour, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

Barnes, R. (1999) Positive Teaching, Positive Learning, London: Routledge.

Merrett, F. (1993) Encouragement Works Best: Positive Approaches to Classroom Management, London: David Fulton.

Teachers with effective classroom management skills are able to anticipate and to see where help is needed. They are able to nip trouble in the bud. They are skilful at scanning the class whilst helping individuals and they position themselves accordingly. They are alert; they can pre-empt disturbance; and they can act fast. They can sense the way a class is responding and can act to maintain a positive atmosphere. However, these skills have to be learned and developed. For a book which shows teachers how to become expert non-verbal communicators and provides advice on conveying authority, gaining and maintaining student attention, dealing with challenges and preventing confrontation, see:

Robertson, J. (3rd ed) (1996) Effective Classroom Control, London: Hodder and Stoughton.

This edition has been updated to cover changes in legislation, and current issues such as dealing with physical contact between teacher and student and formulating whole school policy.

For practical and user-friendly books which combine a comprehensive overview of the theory and practice of classroom management, see:

Porter, L. (2000) Behaviour in Schools, Theory and Practice for Teachers, Buckingham: Open University Press.

Ayres, H. and Gray, F. (1998) Classroom Management, A Practical Approach for Primary and Secondary Teachers, London: David Fulton.

For a practical and constructive guide to classroom and behaviour management, see:

Cowley, S. (2001) Getting the Buggers to Behave, London: Continuum.

Further sound advice deriving from an empirical study of the issues may be found in:

Wragg, E. C. (1993) Class Management, London: Routledge.

Wragg, E. C. (1993) Primary Teaching Skills, London: Routledge.

Vitto, J. M. (2003) Relationship-Driven Classroom Management: Strategies that promote student motivation, London: Sage Publications Ltd.

Miller, A. (2003) Teachers, Parents and Classroom Behaviour: A Psychosocial Approach, Berkshire: Open University Press.

Ross, D. M. (1996) Childhood Bullying and Teasing: What school personnel, other professionals and parents can do, San Francisco: University of California.

For a comprehensive and very practical guide which explores the relationship between effective teaching, behaviour management and colleague support, see:

Rogers, B. (2003) Effective Supply Teaching: Behaviour Management, Classroom Discipline and Colleague Support, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

Rogers, B. (2002) Classroom Behaviour: A Practical Guide to Effective Teaching, Behaviour Management and Colleague Support, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

There are now a huge number of books which offer practical advice on managing classroom behaviour. A selection of these which have stood the test of time include:

Fontana, D. (1986) Classroom Control: Understanding and Guiding Classroom Behaviour, London: Routledge.

Haigh, G. (1990) Classroom Problems in the Primary School, London: Paul Chapman.

McNamara, S. and Moreton, G. (1995) Changing Behaviour: Teaching Children with Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties in Primary and Secondary Classrooms, London: David Fulton.

An important management skill for teachers is related to self presentation. Teachers who are able to project themselves so that children expect them to be ‘in charge’ have a valuable ability. There is a very large element of self confidence in this and student teachers, in particular, may sometimes find it difficult to enact the change from the student role to the teacher role. Perhaps this is not surprising for a huge change in rights and responsibilities is involved. An important first step is to believe in oneself as a teacher. For a slightly zany but fun study of professional identity which offers suggestions as to how you might investigate, reinterpret and reinvent your own teacher identity, see:

Mitchell, C. and Weber, S. (1999) Reinventing Ourselves as Teachers, Beyond Nostalgia, London: Falmer Press.

Teachers can increase their effectiveness and enrich the learning climate in their classroom by developing their own management skills and resources. For practical strategies to enhance the personal development and self-esteem of teachers, see:

Hook, P. And Vass, A. (2001) Teaching with Influence, London: David Fulton.

Another accessible summary of effective classroom management, with a good section on teacher stress and how to cope with it, is provided by:

Laslett, R. & Smith, C. (1992) Effective Classroom Management: A Teacher's Guide, (second edition), London: Routledge. (Reading 11.4)

Section 2: Managing classroom episodes

To manage classrooms effectively teachers should work with the children to develop a coherent sense of purpose within the classroom; should organise classrooms in ways which are consistent with those purposes; and should manage the children, phases and events so that learning objectives are cumulatively reinforced. If this can be done then energy, interest and enthusiasm for learning is likely to be focused productively. For books which provide a wide ranging review of issues, suggest approaches to classroom management in primary schools and have become classics, see:

Roberts, T. (1983) Child Management in the Primary School, London: Allen & Unwin.

Good, T. & Brophy, J. (1978) Looking in Classrooms, New York: Harper Row.

Docking, J.M. (1980) Control and Discipline in Schools, London: Harper & Row.

For a practical guide focusing on the importance of motivation for learning, see:

McLean, A. (2003) The Motivated School London: Sage.

This book draws on research evidence to show how successful learning contexts can be created. It also provides suggestions for teachers working with disengaged learners.

For social psychological detail on rules as guides to behaviour, see:

Collett, P. (ed) (1977) Social Rules and Social Behaviour, Oxford: Blackwell.

Harré, R. (1974) Rule as a Scientific Concept, in Mischel, T. (ed.) Understanding Other Persons, Oxford: Blackwell.

Whilst some classroom rules are overt there are many more which are tacit. Understandings and `rules' develop in classrooms about a great many things. These might include, for example, rules about noise levels, standards of work, movement, and interpersonal relationships. On rules in educational contexts, see:

Hargreaves, D. H., Hestor, S. K. and Mellor, F. J. (1975) Deviance in Classrooms, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

By constant monitoring and being `withit', it is usually possible for teachers to anticipate undesirable behaviours which threaten the working consensus of the classroom. Nevertheless, difficulties are bound to occur from time to time and a prudent teacher is likely to want to think through possible strategies in advance so that they can act confidently in managing such situations. Research evidence worldwide suggests that a major problem for teachers is dealing with constant repetitions of minor misdemeanours. For help to investigate and change these troublesome behaviours through action research, see:

Corrie, L. (2001) Investigating Troublesome Classroom Behaviour, London: Routledge Falmer.

McManus, M. (1989) Troublesome Behaviour in the Classroom: A Teacher's Survival Guide, London: Routledge.

On going problems can also exist in any classroom. These may be associated with an individual child or specific group of children with particular difficulties. In such instances, it is important to record and analyse the behaviour and try to identify the possible causes before any positive action can be taken. In keeping a diary of events one might record the conditions, characteristics and consequences of the behaviour and thus produce an evidence base for action. For help to identify the patterns of difficulty which occur in particular classrooms and thus establish frameworks for devising improvements in behaviour, see:

Watkins, C. (2000) Managing Classroom Behaviour: From Research to Diagnosis, London: Institute of Education Publications.

For an account of alternative ways of analysing disruptive behaviour, see:

Tattum, D.P. (Ed.) (1986) The Management of Disruptive Pupil Behaviour in Schools, Chichester: Wiley.

Many children come to school motivated to learn, knowing how to co-operate and able to behave in a way which their teacher thinks is acceptable. However, other children are unable or unwilling to behave appropriately. For strategies which help to minimise disruption and encourage appropriate behaviour from children deemed to have emotional and behavioural difficulties, see:

Roffey, S. and O’Reirdan, T. (2001) Young Children and Classroom Behaviour, London: David Fulton.

McNamara, S. and Moreton, G. (2nd ed) (2001) Changing Behaviour, Teaching Children with Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties in Primary and Secondary Classrooms, London: David Fulton.

Garner, P. (1999) Pupils with Problems, Rational Fears… Radical Solutions, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books Ltd.

Cole, T., Visser, J. and Upton, G. (1998) Effective Schooling for Pupils with Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, London: David Fulton.

Although primary schools generally appear to be friendly places, some pupils can still feel socially isolated and believe they cannot be successful on the school’s terms, no matter how hard they try. For a discussion of the possible causes of alienation and the identification of strategies to encourage all pupils to think positively about themselves and their achievements, see:

Rogers, B. (1997) Cracking the Hard Class: Strategies for Managing the Harder than Average Class, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

Furlong, V. J. (1995) The Deviant Pupil, Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

Docking, J. (ed) (1990) Education and Alienation in the Junior School, London: Falmer.

Barrett, G. (ed) (1989) Disaffection from School, The Early Years, London: Falmer.

For a blunt account of problems which teachers face in dealing with angry and potentially violent pupils, with practical strategies and solutions, see:

Blum, P. (2001) Teacher’s Guide to Anger Management, London: Routledge Falmer.

There is evidence that bullying remains a widespread problem in many schools. For an introduction to perspectives on bullying and strategies to reduce its incidence in schools, see:

Sharp, S., Thompson, D. and Arora, T. (2002) Bullying, Effective Strategies for Long-term Change, London: Routledge Falmer.

Tattum, D. and Lane, D. (1989) Bullying in Schools, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books Ltd.

For suggestions of other books on behaviour and classroom discipline, see Chapter 6.

Section 3: Whole school issues

Good behaviour and order in classrooms and schools are the products of a great many factors and influences. When they break down though, there tends to be an almost instinctive, but oversimplified, response to 'sort out the troublemakers'. This can even occur at a national level. For instance, in March 1988 a Committee of Enquiry, chaired by Lord Elton, was set up in the United Kingdom following a media outcry over reports of teachers being physically attacked by pupils and about 'indiscipline in schools'. Wisely, however, the Elton Committee took a balanced and wide-ranging view of the issues involved and this is reflected in their report.

DES/WO (1989) Discipline in Schools, Report of the Committee of Enquiry Chaired by Lord Elton, London: HMSO. (Reading 11.8)

For work which has derived directly from the Elton Report, see:

Wheldall, K. (1991) Discipline in Schools: Psychological Perspectives on the Elton Report, London: Routledge.

Docking, J. (2nd ed) (1996) Managing Behaviour in the Primary School, London: David Fulton.

Of course, primary schools are generally seen as being relatively successful in developing and maintaining good behaviour and in providing a constructive atmosphere for learning. In 2000/01 the chief inspector of schools reported, ‘pupils' behaviour, their response to their work and their attitudes to school continue to be very good. In only about one school in 50 is behaviour unsatisfactory’. (OFSTED, 2001, paragraph 55).

OFSTED, (2001) The Annual Report of Her Majesty's Chief Inspector of Schools, Standards and Quality in Education, London: The Stationary Office.

A school’s behaviour policy provides the ‘official guidelines’ which exemplify recommended approaches to situations relating to behaviour and control, e.g. movement of pupils around the school, what constitutes appropriate behaviour in a range of settings etc. In reality however, the uncertainty of classroom life and the uniqueness of teachers and children, means that the negotiation of classroom and school rules in essentially personal and individual. For helpful and practical approaches to improving whole school and classroom behaviour based on a comprehensive range of research and years of experience of working in schools, see:

Riley, K. A. and Rustique-Forrester, E. (2003) Working with Disaffected Students: Why Students Lose Interest and What We Can Do About It, London: Sage.

This accessible book is, as the title suggests, about pupil disaffection. It tackles some of the issues which confront policy makers and practitioners in many countries and contexts. It stresses the importance of early interagency co-operation and of good quality ongoing training for teachers and other adults working with children. For a discussion of related issues, see:

Watkins, C. and Wanger, C. (2000) Improving School Behaviour, London: Paul Chapman.

Munn, P., Johnstone, M. and Chalmers, V. (1992) Effective Discipline in Primary Schools and Classrooms, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

Clarke, D. and Murray, A. (1996) Developing and Implementing a Whole-School Behaviour Policy, London: David Fulton.

A constructive programme of activities for whole-school development is provided by:

Maines, B. (1991) Challenging Behaviour in the Primary School: A School Development Programme, Bristol: Redland Centre for Professional Development, University of the West of England.

For books which approach disciplinary issues more explicitly at a whole-school level, see:

Rogers, B. (2000) Behaviour Management, A Whole School Approach, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

Farmer, A., Cowin, M., Freeman, L., James, M., Drent, A. and Arthur, R. (1991) Positive School Discipline: A Practical Guide to Developing Policy, London: Longman.

Munn, P., Johnstone, M. and Chalmers, V. (1992) Effective Discipline in Primary Schools and Classrooms, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

In addition…

Exclusion from school is a serious sanction which may have long term consequences for the children, their parents and the schools concerned. For books which provide evidence for what is happening as well as an exploration of the policy contexts which result in changes in exclusion rates, see:

Blair, M. (2001) Why Pick on Me? School Exclusion and Black Youth, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books Ltd.

Parsons, C. (1999) Education, Exclusion and Citizenship, London: Routledge.

Hayden, C. (1997) Children Excluded from Primary School, Buckingham: Open University Press.

For a detailed discussion of what causes schools to adopt very different approaches to exclusion, see:

Munn, P., Lloyd, G, and Cullen, M.A. (2000) Alternatives to Exclusion from School, London: Sage.

Cooper, P., Drummond, M.J., Hart, S., Lovey, J. and McLaughton, C. (eds) (2000) Positive Alternatives to Exclusion, London: Routledge.

The fundamental differences between schools with high and low rates of exclusion appear to be; the schools' views of what education is all about, the way in which the curriculum is structured, relations with parents and decision making about exclusions.

Many feel that the appropriate use of support staff can play a major role in the support and inclusion of pupils with special needs. There are an increasing number of books to help support staff and those working with them.

For those who act as line managers for support staff there is guidance from the government.

DfES (2002) Working with Teaching Assistants - A Good Practice Guide, London : DfES Publications.

For books which provide background information as well as practical resources aimed at helping schools to make better use of support staff, see:

Wakinson, A. (2003) Managing Teaching Assistants, London: Routledge.

Balshaw, M. and Farrell, P. (2002) Teaching Assistants - Practical Strategies for Effective Classroom Support, London : David Fulton Publishers.

Balshaw, M. (1999) Help in the Classroom (2 nd Edition) , London : David Fulton Publishers.

For a book which looks at the relationships between teachers and support staff from the perspective of the support staff, see:

Fox, G. (1998) A Handbook for Learning Support Assistants - Teachers and Assistants Working Together, London : David Fulton Publishers.

This book examines the different roles of the special needs co-ordinator, the class teacher and learning support assistant and suggests ways in which these people should work together to support children diagnosed as having special needs. There is a specific chapter which focuses on supporting children with emotional and behavioural difficulties. The issues related to supporting children with emotional and behavioural difficulties is further developed in:

Fox, G. (1993) A Handbook for Special Needs Assistants: Working in Partnership with Teachers, London : David Fulton Publishers.

For a informative yet accessible introduction to child developement and psychology writen specifically for support staff, see:

Bentham, S. (2003) A Teaching Assistant's Guide to Child Development and Psychology in the Classroom, London: Routledge.

 For teaching assistants working in early years or child care settings, see:

Devereux, J. and Miller, L. (eds) (2002) Working with Children in the Early Years , London : David Fulton Publishers.

Miller, L. and Devereux, J. (eds) (2003) Supporting Children's Learning in the Early Years, London : David Fulton Publishers.

 For books written especially for support staff, see:

Drake, P., Jacklin, A., Robinson, C. and Thorp, J. (2003) Becoming a Teaching Assistant, London : Paul Chapman.

Birkett, V. (2001) How to Survive and Succeed as a Teaching Assistant, Cambridge : LDA.

This book is highly accessible and contains both case study material and practical activities to help with the support of children who may have special needs as well as information about how to support literacy and writing.

The impact of class sizes on behaviour and attainment continues to be a hotly debated issue. For an analysis of the educational consequences of class size differences, see:

Blatchford, P. (2003) The Class Size Debate, London: Routledge Falmer.

For a research report which provides a useful introduction to the issues, see:

Jamison, J., Johnson, F. and Dickson, P. (1998) Every Pupil Counts: The Impact of Class Size at KS1, Slough: NFER.

For a history of corporal punishment and an exploration of discipline within the framework of children’s rights, see:

Parker-Jenkins, M. (1999) Sparing the Rod, Schools, Discipline and Children’s Rights, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books Ltd.

For a philosophical account of behaviour in schools, see:

Straughan, R. (1988) Can We Teach Children to be Good? Basic Issues in Moral, Personal and Social Education, Buckingham: Open University Press.

For an introduction to nurture groups and a discussion of the ways in which such groups can impact on social change in schools, see:

Boxall, M. (2002) Nurture Groups in School: Principles and Practice, London: Sage.

For an alternative approach to making classrooms a more pleasant and productive atmosphere for all concerned using transactional analysis, see:

Newell, S. and Jeffrey, D. (2002) Behaviour Management in the Classroom, A Transactional Analysis Approach, London: David Fulton.

Barrow, G., Bradshaw, E. and Newton, T. (2001) Improving Behaviour and Raising Self-Esteem in the Classroom: A Practical Guide to Using Transactional Analysis, London: David Fulton Publishers.