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Notes for further reading
Overview
These readings are concerned with the ideas underlying planning and
implementing a curriculum for the whole-school, preparing the schemes of work
of a single class, and short-term planning and implementing particular teaching
sessions. They concentrate on more than merely pragmatic concerns and thus, for
example, they include the work of Woods & Jeffrey, Moyles (Reading 13.3 )
and Craft et al., who acknowledge the uniquely enriching role of the creativity
and imagination of individual teachers in providing high quality, responsive
curriculum experiences for the pupils in their classes. Atkinson & Claxton
provide a reminder that, for the reflective teacher, intuitive responses
from professionals must not be eradicated in a quest for ever-tighter planning
and 'delivery' of the curriculum.
Woods, P. and Jeffrey, B. (1996) Teachable
Moments: The Art of Teaching in Primary Schools. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Craft, A., Jeffrey, B. and
Leibling, M. (2001) Creativity in Education. London: Continuum
Atkinson, T. and Claxton, G. (eds)
(2000) The Intuitive Practitioner: On the Value of Not Always Knowing What
One is Doing. Buckingham: Open University Press
There are alternative conceptions of the curriculum
of which it is useful for the reflective teacher to be aware before considering
those bound by national curricula. Perhaps the most important is that of early
childhood educators, such as Katz ( Reading 8.4 ), whilst Eisner and Egan
present further alternatives to the school reform route that has been taken in
the UK, and in America, in
recent years.
Egan, K. (1988) An alternative
approach to teaching and the curriculum: Teaching as Storytelling. London: Routledge.
Eisner, E. (1999) Cognition
and Curriculum Reconsidered: 2nd. Edition. London : Paul Chapman.
Perhaps the most robust and concise statement of key
principles in curricular planning is HMI's classic (Reading 9.1), and its logic
underlies Chapter 9 of 'Reflective Teaching'.
Section
1: Whole-School Curricular Planning
In England and Wales, planning
at a whole-school level seems to have gone through three phases. An adaption
phase when the National Curriculum was new, characterised by the key
strategy of 'mediation' of the initial, over-loaded and incoherent National
Curriculum - see Croll. An adoption phase only became fully possible
after 1995 with the availability of the revised National Curriculum following a
holistic review - see Dearing. In more recent years an extension phase can
be identified incorporating curricular initiatives such as the Literacy and
Numeracy Strategies and the Qualification and Curriculum Authority's Schemes of
Work.
Croll, P. (1996) Teachers,
Pupils and Primary Schooling: Continuity and Change. London: Cassell.
Dearing, R. (1993) The National
Curriculum and its Assessment: Final Report. London: SCAA.
DfEE (1998) The National
Literacy Strategy: Framework for teaching. London: HMSO
DfEE (1999) The National Numeracy
Strategy: Framework for teaching mathematics from Reception to Year 6. London: HMSO
In 1995, the now superseded School Curriculum and
Assessment Authority provided very useful advice on curriculum planning across
the primary school. This analysis of long-, medium- and short-term planning was
taken up by OFSTED and still provides professionals with a clear review of the
different levels of planning. Historically, an important decision in any
consideration of the organisation of the primary curriculum has been when to
use an integrated or semi-integrated topic-based approach and when to plan by
subjects. In the early years of the National Curriculum, Alexander, Rose and
Woodhead challenged primary school teams to confront this issue directly. The evolution
of this debate has meant that planning by subjects has become increasingly the
norm, at least in England
and Wales
, as the National Curriculum has moved through successive phases of
development.
SCAA (1995) Planning the
Curriculum at Key Stages 1 and 2. London
: School Curriculum and Assessment Authority.
OFSTED (2003) Handbook for
Inspecting Primary and Nursery Schools . London : HMSO
Alexander, R., Rose, J. and
Woodhead, C. (1992) Curriculum Organisation and Classroom Practice in
Primary Schools: a discussion paper. Oxford
: Blackwell.
DfEE/QCA (1999) The National
Curriculum: Handbook for primary teachers in England. London : HMSO
A degree of consensus has emerged in recent years
about key features of high quality whole-school planning. Many of these
originated in early work by HMI (Reading 9.1) and some have been heavily
promoted in the UK
by government. Principally, these are progression and continuity, breadth and
balance and coherence. The importance of such ideas is re-inforced by many
authors, including Haste, who provides an important psychological perspective,
and Riley & Prentice.
Riley, J. & Prentice, R. (1999)
The Curriculum for 7-11 year olds. London: Paul Chapman
Haste, H. (1987) 'Growing into
rules', in Bruner, J.S. and Haste, H. (eds) Making Sense: The Child's
Construction of the World. London: Methuen .
Section
2: Structuring schemes of work
Long-, medium- and short -term planning are reviewed fully in 'Reflective
Teaching', Chapter 9. Authors who write to support an understanding of this
process include Bennett et al., who analyse activities into five categories
that remain useful in judging whether they are appropriately varied; Clegg and
Billington ( Reading 10.2 ), who show how resources should be seen to support a
curriculum rather than as a means by which it is selected; and the ASE and
NAAIDT, which note health and safety requirements for practical science and
design & technology lessons.
Bennett, N., Desforges, C.,
Cockburn, A. and Wilkinson, B. (1984) The Quality of Pupil Learning
Experiences. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
ASE (1994) Safety in Science
for Primary Schools. Hatfield: ASE.
NAAIDT (1992) Make it Safe. London: National
Association of Advisers and Inspectors of Design and Technology.
Further, in providing an overview of the general
principles of constructivist learning and teaching, Ager demonstrates how the
idea of pupils' participation in their own learning need not be incompatible
with planning and working in the context of a National Curriculum:
Ager, R. (2000) The Art of
Information and Communications Technology for Teachers. London: Fulton
Bonnett focuses on the role of ICT across the
curriculum.
Bonnett, M., McFarlane, A. and
Williams, J. (1999) ICT in subject teaching: an opportunity for curriculum
renewal, in The Curriculum Journal , 10(3), pp 345-59.
In the context of the curriculum in
England
, the non-statutory Literacy and Numeracy Strategies (see above) and the
Qualification and Curriculum Authority's Schemes of Work are of central
importance. An interesting book by Moyles et al. examines key questions about
interactive learning and effective classroom interaction in the context of the
Literacy Strategy.
(e.g.) QCA/DfEE (1998) Science:
A scheme of work for Key Stages 1 & 2. London: HMSO.
Moyles, J., Hargreaves, L., Merry,
R., Paterson, F. and Esarte-Sarries, V. (2002) Interactive Teaching in
Primary Classrooms: Digging Deeper into Meanings. Buckingham: Open
University Press
A number of authors question the
efficacy of such developments. Amongst these are Davies & Edwards, who
consider the growing tendency for the government in England to exert control over
pedagogy in order to deliver 'standards'.
Davies, M. and Edwards, G. (2001)
Will the Curriculum Caterpillar Ever Learn to Fly?, in Collins, J., Insley, K.
and Soler, J. (eds) Developing Pedagogy. London: Paul Chapman.
In addition, advice proliferates about ways to use
subject texts in the Literacy Hour, and how to promote literacy objectives
through work in a range of subjects - see Parkin & Lewis.
Parkin, T. and Lewis, M. (1998) Science
and Literacy: A guide for primary teachers. London: Collins.
When a pupil complains that an
activity is 'pointless', is 'boring' or that they 'don't see what it's for',
then the curriculum is failing to satisfy the criterion of relevance.
Motivation may fall and with it may go concentration, commitment and quality -
see Pollard et al. ( Reading 7.11 ).
The importance of practical tasks in ensuring
relevance for pupils is considered by authors such as Hunter & Scheirer,
and Johnston, Chater & Bell examine how teachers can manage the whole
curriculum and still educate the whole child.
Hunter, R. and Scheirer, E.A.
(1988) The Organic Classroom: Organizing for Learning 7 to 12. London : Falmer.
Johnston
, J., Chater, M. and Bell
, D. (2002) Teaching the Primary Curriculum. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
For pupils with special needs, specific aproaches to planning may be appropriate:
Byers, R. and Rose, R. (2004) Planning the Curriculum for Pupils with Special Needs. London: David Fulton
Work where subject boundaries are sometimes broken
down has exciting potential, for pupils are very often interested by
cross-curricular themes - see Siraj-Blatchford and Webb. In 2003, a key
publication from the DfES suggests the possibility of a loosening of the
subject-based approach to planning now adopted by most primary schools in England and Wales . Beyond subjects, there is
increasing concern with teaching that addresses citizenship and values - see
Bailey, and Holden and Clough.
Siraj-Blatchford, J. and
Siraj-Blatchford, I. (1995) Educating the
Whole Child: Cross-curricular skills, Themes and Dimensions. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Webb, R. (1996) Cross-curricular
Primary Practice: Taking a Leadership Role. London: Falmer.
DfES (2003 ) Excellence and
Enjoyment: A strategy for primary schools. Nottingham:
DfES Publications
Bailey, R. (ed) (2000) Teaching
Values and Citzenship Across the Curriculum: Educating Children for the World. London: Kogan Page
Holden, C and Clough, N. (2002) Education
for Citizenship: Ideas in Action. Buckingham, Open University Press
Despite recent publications and statements from the
DfES, Holden & Smith and Campbell & Neill point out that there may be
problems as well as possibilities in such work.
Holden, C. and Smith, L. (1992)
Economic and industrial understanding in primary education: problems and
possibilities. Education and Training , 34(3), pp.11-14
Campbell , J. and Neill, S.R.St.J. (1992) Teacher
Time and Curriculum Manageability at Key Stage 1 . London : AMMA.
Section
3: Short term planning
For practical guidance for both experienced teachers and trainees, see
Kyriacou; Jacques & Holland; and Wyse . For such guidance placed in the
context of the wider teaching and learning process, see Hughes, Dean, and Arthur, Grainger & Wray:
Kyriacou, C. (1998) Essential
Teaching Skills: 2nd. Edition. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes.
Jacques, K. and Hyland, R. (2003) Achieving
QTS - Professional Studies: Primary Phase. (2nd. Edition) Exeter: Learning Matters.
Wyse, D. (2002) Becoming a Primary
School Teacher. London:
Routledge Falmer
Hughes, P. (2002) Principles of
Primary Education Study Guide. (2nd. Edition) London: David Fulton
Dean, J. (2001) Organising
Learning in the Primary School Classroom: 3rd. Edition. London: Routledge Falmer
Arthur, J., Grainger, T. and Wray, D. (2006) Learning to Teach in the Primary School. London: Routledge
In weekly planning, and especially in lesson
planning, differentiating work for the range of pupils in the class is of vital
importance if they are to be engaged with their learning. Drawing on the work
of a range of authors, Bearne ( Reading
9.6 ) grapples with the difficult concepts and practicalities that inform
differentiation practice within schools. Montgomery
( Reading 9.7 ) highlights the nature of the demands which a curriculum or an
activity makes of the learner. Both Simpson and O'Brien & Guiney offer an
analysis of the implications for learning of different forms of
differentiation, whilst McNamara & Moreton provide practical guidance.
Taking account of individual differences is one theme of Muijs and Reynold's
wide-ranging book.
Simpson, M. (1997) Developing
differentiation practices: meeting the needs of pupils and teachers, The
Curriculum Journal, Vol 8, No 1, pp 85-104.
O'Brien T. and Guiney, D. (2001) Differentiation
in Teaching and Learning. London: Continuum
McNamara, S.and Moreton, G. (1997) Understanding
Differentiation: A Teachers Guide. London: David Fulton.
Muijs, D. and Reynolds, D. (2001) Effective
Teaching: Evidence and Practice. London: Paul Chapman
The needs of those at the Foundation Stage are
significantly different from those of older pupils - see Anning, Hurst and the
QCA/DfEE 2000:
Anning, A. (ed) (1995) A
National Curriculum for the Early Years. Buckingham: Open University
Press.
Hurst , V. (1992) Planning for Early
Learning: The First Five Years. London: Paul Chapman.
QCA/DfEE (2000) Curriculum
guidance for the foundation stage. London: HMSO
In addition, the needs of pupils with special
educational needs, or those who are deemed 'gifted', are very significant - see
Croll & Moses ( Reading 10.6 ); Roaf & Bines ( Reading
15.5) ; and Eyre & McClure. Also, the Whurr publications catalogue
specialises in publications that deal with various aspects of special needs
teaching and learning.
Eyre, D. and McClure, L. (eds)
(2001) Curriculum Provision for the Gifted and Talented in the Primary
School: English, Maths, Science and ICT. London: David Fulton
www.whurr.co.uk
Delivering a full National Curriculum in some
circumstances is extremely difficult, and through the statementing process it
may be necessary to 'disapply' parts of the curriculum where they are
inappropriate - see Jones & Charlton, and DfES 2001.
Jones, K. and Charlton, T. (1992) Learning
Difficulties in the Primary Classroom.
At a practical level, differentiation strategies can
be presented in lesson planning in various ways. In fact Kerry and Kerry, in
discussing differentiation in work for high attaining pupils, identify fifteen
different methods.
Kerry, T. and Kerry, C. (1997)
Differentiation: teachers' views of the usefulness of recommended strategies in
helping the more able pupils in primary and secondary classrooms. In Educational
Studies, 23 (3), 439-457.
In planning lessons, ICT should never be used as a
cosmetic 'add on' - see Kennelwell, Parkinson & Tanner (Reading 9.8 );
Loveless & Dore; and, for a perspective on ICT in the early years,
Siraj-Blatchford and Whitebread.
Loveless, A. & Dore, B. (eds)
(2002) ICT in the Primary School. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Siraj-Blatchford, J. &
Whitebread, D. (2003) Supporting ICT in the Early Years. Maidenhead:
Open University Press.
Teaching strategies should always, of course, be
considered during short term planning, and Joyce, Calhoun & Hopkins look at
a range of teaching models offering a wide repertoire of strategies for
teachers.
Joyce, B., Calhoun, E. and Hopkins, D. (2002) Models
of Learning - Tools for Teaching. Buckingham: Open University Press
The issue of assessment is considered in detail in Chapter 14 of 'Reflective
Teaching'. One issue tackled is that of pupil involvement in assessing their
own work. This can be a powerful tool in helping teachers to develop
self-assessment as part of the pupil learning process - see Clarke, and
Muschamp ( Reading 14.5). Formative assessment necessarily provides the
evidence base for future planning; with this in mind, Black et al. provide
research-based analyses of the connections between assessment and planning.
Clarke, S. (2001) Unlocking
Formative Assessment: Practical Strategies for Enhancing Pupils' Learning in
the Primary Classroom. London : Hodder and Stoughton .
Clarke, S. (2003) Enriching
Feedback in the Primary Classroom. London:
Hodder and Stoughton
.
Black, P., Harrison , C., Lee, C., Marshall , B. and Wiliam, D. (2003) Assessment
for Learning: Putting it into Practice. Maidenhead: Open University Press
Section
4: Evaluating teaching
A reflective teacher is one who clearly understands the intimate links
between the processes of planning, teaching and assessment. In considering the
evaluation of lessons, it is possible to highlight many of the features of this
cycle - see Scott-Baumann, Bloomfield & Roughton.
Scott-Baumann, A., Bloomfield , A. and
Roughton, L. (1997) Becoming a Secondary School Teacher. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
For readings on lesson evaluation as part of the
process of formative assessment, and on individual target setting resulting
from such a process, see Torrance & Pryor. Also see Hayes, who looks
broadly across interrelated aspect of the primary teacher's role and includes
useful material on planning, linking this firmly to the cycle of planning,
teaching and assessment:
Torrance , H. and Pryor, J. (1998) Investigating Formative Assessment:
Teaching, Learning and Assessment in the Classroom. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Hayes, D. (1999) Foundations of Primary
Teaching: 2nd . Edition London: Fulton.
Hayes, D. (2003) Planning, Teaching and
Class Management in Primary Schools: 2nd . Edition. London:
Fulton
In
addition…
Dixon, Drummond, Hart and McIntyre have produced a compelling book that
looks at how deterministic beliefs about ability influence the nature of the
teaching and learning in schools. As ‘Every Child Matters’ starts to inform
policy and practice, there are strong messages here for the planning and
implementation of the curriculum:
Dixon, A., Drummond, M.J., Hart, S. and McIntyre, D. (2003) Learning Without Limits. Maidenhead:
OU/McGraw-Hill
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