Notes for further reading

Overview

The quality of classroom relationships is commonly regarded as being very important. Good classroom relationships facilitate learning, provide both teachers and children with a sense of self fulfillment, and, in addition, underpin the positive, purposefully disciplined working atmosphere which all teachers aim to create. In addition, good relationships reflect certain values and help to define a type of moral order for the classroom. In so doing, they model codes and principles of interaction, which have wider and longer-term significance and thus contribute to the social, ethical and moral education of children.

Representing the first report of a unique ethnographic study of individual pupils from the ages of four to eleven, the first book is a vivid and accessible introduction to an interpretive approach to classroom relationships. Drawing on case studies of individual children during their first three years of schooling it explores the ways in which an individual’s identity and approach to learning is greatly influenced by social factors such as family life, friendships with other children and relationships with teachers.

For an understanding of how relationships in school influence children’s learning potential, see:

A more general overview of research on classroom relationships is provided by:

Other closely related accounts can be found in:

For a strongly theorised exploration of classroom relationships and social justice, see:

Section 1: Classroom climates and interpersonal relationships

The influence of classroom environments on teachers and children has been a research topic for many years. For a classic study on `socio-emotional climate’ and a description of how an adult’s leadership style can affect the behaviour of a group, see:

The ‘emotional side of teaching and learning’, the need to build and sustain warm relationships between teachers and learners and the `art' of maintaining relationships while teaching is described by:

For practical ways in which fostering caring relationships and the development of a positive classroom culture can promote learning, see:

The influential work of Carl Rogers provides important insights on relationships for learning. He suggests that three basic qualities are required if a warm, `person centred' relationship is to be established acceptance, genuineness and empathy. Good relationships are, according to Rogers, founded on understanding and on `giving'. For an introduction to his work and an exploration of the ways in which good quality relationships can help to facilitate learning, see:

For an examination of the emotional factors that enter into the process of teaching and learning and insights into the nature of pupil-teacher relationships, see:

A more general overview of research on classroom relationships is provided by:

It is now recognised by many that successful learners need to be active participants in learning relationships with others. For a development of this view supported by examples of classroom practice, see:

For fascinating studies in which collaborative learning methods were developed so that relationships became the basis for learning, see:

There is now a wealth of material about childhood identities and peer relationships in childhood and adolescence. For an overview of the nature and significance of children's peer relationships and an examination of the context of children's relationships, see:

For a book which offers teachers a wide variety of possible strategies that should enable groups and individuals to have better relationships with each other, see:

For a further discussion of peer relationships and the way in which they can support learning, see:

Teaching can only be regarded as successful if the learners are learning. Generally speaking, for this to be achieved the learners have to be involved in the process of learning and they have to appreciate that the effort which is required of them is worthwhile. For insights into children’s perspectives on teacher-pupil relationships, see:

Section 2: Classroom rules and relationships

Classroom order and discipline is most constructively based on good relationships and a sense of community. The importance of interpersonal relationships in maintaining a working atmosphere in classrooms and schools is repeatedly asserted in:

At the start of each new year it is suggested that a ‘process of establishment’ takes place, through which understandings and tacit rules about classroom life are negotiated. This ‘working consensus’ reflects the needs and coping strategies of both pupils and teachers as they strive to fulfil their classroom roles. Given the power of each to threaten the interests of the other, the working consensus represents a type of moral agreement about ‘how we will get on together’. It thus frames future actions and relationships. For the original use of the concept of working consensus, see:

For social psychological detail on rules as guides to behaviour, see:

For a psychological approach to behaviour difficulties in school which emphasises the need for a coherent framework which takes account of the views of pupils, parents and teachers, see:

Positive teacher-pupils relationships are an important factor in pupil achievement, motivation and social inclusion in school. For an examination of the relationship between positive relationships, pupil resilience, motivation and classroom management, see:

For a look at how power relations are constructed by teachers and pupils in classrooms through their every day actions see:

Whilst some classroom rules are overt there are many more which are tacit. Understandings and `rules' develop in classrooms about a great many things. These might include, for example, rules about noise levels, standards of work, movement, and interpersonal relationships. On rules in educational contexts, see:

Although primary schools generally appear to be friendly places, some pupils can still feel socially isolated and believe they cannot be successful on the school’s terms, no matter how hard they try. For a discussion of the possible causes of alienation and the identification of strategies to encourage all pupils to think positively about themselves and their achievements, see:

Different children respond to the challenges of schooling in different ways. For some pupils, motivation is directed at avoiding failure by avoiding participation. For others, demoralization leads to withdrawal from an educational system that they believe to be irrelevant. Other pupils are driven to prove their worth by outperforming their peers. For an introduction to the principles of motivation as they apply to classroom learning and management, see:

Teachers are often the first point of contact for a child who is experiencing problems related to bullying, drugs, abuse, bereavement or divorce. These books are a useful introduction to counselling skills and strategies. The first also has an important resource section, which provides guidance on where teachers and pupils may go for further professional help and advice. The last tackles practical concerns such as boundary issues and the place of friendship in caring relationships.

For suggestions of other books on classroom discipline, see Chapter 11.

Section 3: Enhancing classroom climate

Children often feel vulnerable in classrooms, particularly because of their teacher's power to control and evaluate. This affects how children experience school and their openness to new learning. A considerable responsibility is thus placed on teachers to reflect on how they use their power and on how this use affects children. It is important for teachers to use their power constructively to encourage, to reinforce appropriate child actions and to enhance self esteem.

In terms of building children's confidence and self esteem the following provide both a conceptual overview, a review of research and practical suggestions for learning activities that are likely to help pupils feel better about themselves.

The 2nd edition of Enhancing Self-Esteem in the Classroom includes a chapter on teachers’ own self-esteem. For further discussions and practical strategies for combating the low self-esteem and stress suffered by many teachers see:

An `incorporative classroom' is one which is consciously designed to enable each child to act as a full participant in class activities and also to feel itself to be a valued member of the class. This is what most teachers would wish but there is plenty of evidence that, in the context of curriculum pressures, large class sizes and the requirements of many assessment procedures, it is difficult to achieve.

For strategies to improve children’s psychological health and foster ‘well-being’, a concept which includes, confidence, empathy, pro-social behaviour, creativity and a sense of achievement, see:

The following are interesting introductions to the notion of emotional literacy. They also provide a useful discussion about managing emotions and building a rapport with children.

For ways to develop the personal and social development of children, including those deemed to be at risk because of their special educational needs, see:

‘Circle of friends’ is a specific tool developed to ensure the social inclusion of children with special needs within their peer group and local mainstream school. It is concerned with what might be termed ‘the social psychology of acceptance’ and how this can be fostered in groups of children. For an introduction, see:

The following books set out some principles and establish frameworks that will offer support to teachers in developing high quality PHSE curriculum to enhance pupils’ personal and social development.

For what are rapidly becoming classics in the field of personal and social education, see:

For a view of how schools should support children and social justice in the context of the National Curriculum and OFSTED see:

Other constructive and stimulating books which will support the development of classroom relationships are:

A book specifically on supporting children’s learning at these times of great pressure on performance, is:

In addition…

An appreciation of the processes in social interaction and relationships which influence emotional growth and learning is important for work with all children, and especially those who are troubled. For a theoretical and practical resource that helps adults to explore the nature of their own participation in facilitating emotional growth and learning see:

The connection between family relationships and individual development are discussed in:

There are a lot of books on the relationships between homes, schools and children's learning. Some exceptional ones are listed below. The first provides a rare portrait of a group of working-class families whose four year old children start school in the same year. It analyses the ways in which parents, children and teachers strive to cross cultural and linguistic boundaries to come to a common understanding of school.

For children's perceptions of adult-child relationships in their home, neighbourhood and school, see:

For an introduction to educational therapy and a therapeutic perspective on children’s relationships with parents, siblings, teachers and peers, see:

For a discussion of 'learning relationships' and issues related to identity and learning aimed specifically at teaching assistants and support staff, see: